Table of Contents
Overview
Definition and Scope
International health encompasses health activities that occur between governments or individuals from two or more nations, which includes initiatives such as WHO disease control programs, clinical services provided by medical missions and corporations, and overseas research efforts.[1.1] The International Health Regulations (IHR) 2005 represent a significant agreement among 196 countries and WHO Member States, aimed at enhancing global health security. This framework mandates that all countries report events of international public health importance, thereby facilitating coordinated responses to health threats.[4.1] The role of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in international health is also pivotal, as many operate in consultative status with the United Nations, allowing them to collaborate directly with UN bodies and the WHO. For instance, the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) partners with the UN to deliver emergency health services, particularly during crises such as the COVID-19 pandemic. This pandemic underscored the essential function of international health organizations, with the WHO leading global responses, including the distribution of vaccines through initiatives like COVAX.[3.1] Additionally, organizations such as the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation work closely with UN-affiliated agencies to promote health innovation, focusing on the development of affordable vaccines and the strengthening of healthcare systems.[3.1]Importance of International Health
International health, often referred to as global health, encompasses a systematic consideration of various factors that influence the health of human populations. These factors include genetic, ethnic, and cultural characteristics, as well as the natural environment, which comprises biological, physical, and climatological aspects, and political contexts that can affect health outcomes.[5.1] The integration of cultural knowledge into international health programs is crucial for enhancing their acceptance and success among diverse populations. For instance, culturally sensitive mental health services, such as those provided by the Refugee and International Health Program in Minneapolis, demonstrate the importance of understanding different cultural practices and health beliefs.[6.1] Moreover, the World Health Organization (WHO) emphasizes the necessity of incorporating intercultural mediators into healthcare systems to ensure equitable care for refugees and migrants.[7.1] Culturally tailored interventions have shown promise in improving access to healthcare and clinical outcomes for ethnic minorities, highlighting the need for patient-centered research and culturally responsive care.[8.1] The landscape of global health governance has undergone significant transformation, reflecting the increasing political importance of health as an international issue. Initially, international health organizations were primarily focused on controlling the spread of infectious diseases, which often arose as a by-product of trade.[13.1] The World Health Organization (WHO) and the International Health Regulations Treaty (IHRT) now play crucial roles in modeling responses to public health crises and managing their consequences, with public health education being a vital component of a flexible response system.[14.1] The WHO collaborates with countries and partners worldwide to prepare for, prevent, detect, and respond to disease outbreaks and other health emergencies. This includes efforts to research, prevent, and manage diseases that are prone to epidemics and pandemics, as well as to strengthen systems for the rapid detection and assessment of potential public health threats.[17.1] Through these initiatives, the WHO aims to enhance the functional capacities of countries to effectively respond to public health emergencies. Addressing global health challenges requires complex coordination and collaboration between various actors, often facilitated through Global Health Diplomacy (GHD).[16.1] The historical context of pandemics has highlighted the necessity for proactive preparedness and response mechanisms that leverage global cooperation, scientific innovation, and robust health policies to mitigate the effects of future pandemics.[18.1] These events have underscored that health security is a global concern, as nations cannot isolate themselves from infectious diseases; treating health security as a niche issue will ultimately fail.[19.1] Furthermore, the impact of health security on international policies has become increasingly evident, with policymakers recognizing the significant health benefits of investing in areas such as disease surveillance and vaccine research to strengthen international health systems.[18.1]In this section:
History
Early Developments in International Health
Key milestones in the history of international health include significant events that have shaped public health policies and practices globally. One of the most notable achievements was the eradication of smallpox in 1980, a result of extensive global cooperation spearheaded by the World Health Organization (WHO).[46.1] This event underscored the importance of international collaboration in addressing health crises and set a precedent for future public health initiatives. The Alma-Ata Declaration of 1978 marked another pivotal moment in international health, emphasizing the necessity of comprehensive primary health care as a means to achieve the goal of "Health for All by 2000 A.D." This declaration was jointly sponsored by the WHO and the United Nations, highlighting the collaborative efforts required to improve global health standards.[47.1] In the latter part of the 20th century, organizations specifically targeting diseases began to emerge, significantly influencing healthcare funding in developing countries. Initiatives such as the President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief and The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria were established to address pressing health issues. These organizations, particularly the WHO, adopted innovative strategies like the 3 by 5 Initiative to enhance access to antiretroviral treatment, demonstrating a shift towards targeted health interventions.[49.1] The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) also played a crucial role in global health during this period. The establishment of the Global Disease Detection Operations Center and the Center for Global Health exemplified the CDC's commitment to addressing global health concerns. The launch of the Global Rapid Response Team (GRRT) further illustrated the CDC's proactive approach to public health emergencies, including its response to the COVID-19 pandemic, which built upon decades of international collaboration.[48.1]Evolution of Global Health Governance
The Alma-Ata Declaration, adopted in 1978, played a pivotal role in shaping the priorities of international health organizations by promoting primary health care (PHC) as a central strategy for achieving equitable global health. It emphasized that health is a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, rather than merely the absence of disease, framing health as a fundamental human right and a critical social goal that necessitates the involvement of various sectors beyond just health care.[52.1] Although the declaration envisioned "Health for All" by the year 2000, this goal was not realized due to numerous challenges faced in implementing the Alma-Ata principles.[50.1] However, in recent years, there has been a revitalization of interest in primary health care, reflecting a renewed commitment to the ideals set forth in the Alma-Ata Declaration.[53.1] In the years following the Alma-Ata Declaration, the global health community grappled with the tension between comprehensive and selective health approaches. The comprehensive approach advocated by Alma-Ata was often overshadowed by selective strategies that focused on specific diseases, which led to a fragmented health system that did not adequately address the underlying social determinants of health.[54.1] This fragmentation highlighted the need for a revitalization of PHC, which has seen renewed interest in recent years as global health priorities have shifted back towards comprehensive care models.[53.1] The lessons learned from the eradication of smallpox also continue to influence global health governance. The smallpox campaign demonstrated the importance of community involvement and the establishment of measurable objectives, which are now considered essential for the success of international health initiatives.[56.1] Strategies developed during the smallpox eradication, such as active case-finding and targeted vaccination, have been adapted for contemporary health challenges, including responses to emerging infectious diseases like Ebola and polio.[57.1] In the context of recent global health crises, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, the role of philanthropic organizations has evolved significantly. Philanthropy has become increasingly vital in addressing gaps left by declining public resources, providing essential support to under-resourced communities and vulnerable populations.[67.1] The pandemic prompted a surge in crisis-motivated giving, with many foundations viewing the situation as a call for substantial investment in health initiatives.[64.1] This shift underscores the growing reliance on private funding to complement public health efforts, highlighting the need for collaboration among stakeholders to maximize impact and address equity and access issues in global health.[67.1]Recent Advancements
Technological Innovations in Health
Technological innovations, particularly in big data analytics, are increasingly recognized as crucial in modeling transmission dynamics and developing infection control measures during outbreaks. The integration of advanced data analytics enhances the effectiveness of international health policies aimed at combating infectious diseases, such as malaria.[89.1] Predicting disease outbreaks has become a cornerstone in epidemiology, with the combination of laboratory data and epidemiological information significantly improving predictive models. This approach allows for a nuanced understanding of infectious diseases, especially when incorporating social, demographic, and climate data.[90.1] Despite the opportunities for utilizing big data in infectious disease research and policy-making, challenges remain that must be addressed to fully realize its potential.[91.1] The COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated the adoption of digital health tools, highlighting the need for inclusive policies that address disparities in access, particularly in low- and middle-income countries.[92.1] The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) into healthcare has revolutionized diagnostics, treatment customization, and delivery, offering substantial potential to mitigate healthcare disparities exacerbated by shortages of medical professionals and resources in low-resource settings.[93.1] AI technologies can enhance access to primary healthcare, especially in underserved rural areas, by addressing systemic challenges such as infrastructure inadequacies and a lack of trained professionals.[96.1] Furthermore, innovative telemedicine applications are transforming healthcare delivery, particularly in low-resource settings where access to quality healthcare services is limited.[97.1] Collaboration between health sectors and foreign affairs is essential to ensure that digital health innovations promote social justice and health equity, fostering a more resilient and equitable health system.[92.1] Telemedicine is revolutionizing healthcare delivery, especially in low-resource settings where access to quality healthcare services is often limited.[97.1] While some perceive telemedicine as a competitor to traditional healthcare methods, it fundamentally facilitates access to essential resources in these contexts.[98.1] A notable example of successful technology implementation in primary healthcare is the Pesinet program in Bamako, Mali, which utilizes new technologies to combat malnutrition, a leading cause of child mortality.[100.1] This program exemplifies how innovative health solutions can effectively address critical health issues and highlights the potential for eHealth initiatives to guide similar applications in both low- and middle-income countries (LMIC) and high-income countries (HIC).[99.1]Global Health Initiatives and Partnerships
Global health initiatives and partnerships have played a crucial role in addressing public health challenges and advancing health outcomes worldwide. A significant effort in this domain was a global horizon scan conducted by international experts, which identified 15 emerging technologies and scientific advances that could substantially impact global public health.[85.1] This initiative underscores the importance of innovation in tackling health issues. At major events like CES 2025, groundbreaking healthcare innovations were showcased, highlighting their potential to transform global health and save lives, particularly among children. Innovations such as novel vaccines, low-cost diagnostics, and supportive solutions for mothers during pregnancy have been pivotal in reducing global child mortality by half since the year 2000.[86.1] Furthermore, the World Health Organization (WHO) has actively recommended new interventions, such as advanced mosquito nets, which are expected to enhance efforts to combat malaria and save lives.[86.1] The World Bank Group (WBG) has also made significant contributions by providing health services to 750 million people over the past five years. This achievement reflects the WBG's commitment to strengthening primary health care systems, particularly in vulnerable and crisis-hit regions.[87.1] The focus on primary health care is further emphasized by the recognition that it is the most cost-effective strategy for achieving sustainable universal health coverage in low- and middle-income countries.[109.1] In 2023, the global health landscape was marked by a record year for disease elimination, with several countries successfully eradicating infectious diseases through national efforts and collaborative actions with health partners.[88.1] This milestone not only highlights the progress made in global health but also serves as a reminder of the importance of solidarity and cooperation in overcoming complex health challenges.Key Challenges
Health Disparities and Inequities
Health disparities and inequities represent significant challenges in international health, exacerbated by various systemic factors. Access to quality health care is essential in reducing health inequality, particularly as the prevalence of noncommunicable diseases such as cancer and diabetes continues to rise globally. The World Health Organization (WHO) emphasizes that to maintain effective health care systems, the world will require an additional 18 million health care workers by 2030, highlighting the urgent need for investment in health care infrastructure and workforce development.[128.1] Moreover, the COVID-19 pandemic has further illuminated existing health disparities, as health services worldwide struggle to provide essential care while managing the crisis. This situation threatens to reverse progress made in combating infectious diseases and improving maternal and child health over the past two decades.[129.1] The pandemic has also underscored the importance of community-level interventions aimed at improving minority health and reducing health disparities. Initiatives that engage communities in public health campaigns, such as those promoting COVID-19 vaccination, have shown promise in addressing these inequities.[143.1] Community participation is essential for the development, implementation, and evaluation of health services and policies. A systematic review indicates that involving community members, service users, and other stakeholders in these processes can lead to improved health outcomes and empower populations to advocate for their health needs.[146.1] Qualitative and practice-based studies have identified key attributes necessary for successful community health improvement efforts, such as leadership, collaboration infrastructure, and a shared vision.[145.1] Furthermore, community-level strategies are vital for addressing health disparities, as evidenced by initiatives aimed at reducing infant and maternal mortality and food insecurity, which align with the objectives of Healthy People 2030.[144.1] These findings underscore the importance of grassroots movements in influencing health policy and fostering community-driven change efforts. Addressing health disparities necessitates a multifaceted approach that incorporates innovative public health policies. Experts emphasize that implementing public health policies that include climate co-benefits may serve as a practical pathway to enhance climate mitigation efforts.[148.1] This approach aims to bridge the gap between health adaptation objectives and the universal health risks posed by climate change, which encompass primary health outcomes such as mortality and morbidity across the entire population.[147.1] By focusing on these interconnected strategies, public health initiatives can better protect vulnerable populations from the adverse health impacts associated with climate change.[148.1]Global Health Security and Preparedness
Global health security is increasingly threatened by the impacts of climate change and antimicrobial resistance (AMR), necessitating comprehensive preparedness strategies. Climate change has been shown to enhance the transmission of food-, water-, and vector-borne diseases by expanding the geographical areas and prolonging the conditions favorable for outbreaks of infectious diseases. This phenomenon is particularly evident in the increased transmission potential of vector-borne diseases such as malaria, which is expected to rise due to enhanced climatic suitability for mosquito vectors in regions like Asia, sub-Saharan Africa, and South America.[131.1] To address these challenges, public health professionals are urged to improve surveillance for both emerging and established pathogens, as well as to expand monitoring and analysis of climatic and environmental changes related to infectious disease epidemiology. Such measures can help anticipate and respond to the infectious disease impacts of climate change.[132.1] Furthermore, adaptation strategies are recommended, including the development of scientific explanations for the association between climate change and infectious diseases, improving predictions of spatial-temporal processes, and establishing effective early warning systems for health impacts related to climate change.[133.1] In parallel, the global community faces significant challenges from AMR, which complicates the management of infectious diseases. The World Health Organization (WHO) has emphasized the need for a coordinated global response to AMR, advocating for a 'whole of United Nations approach' to tackle this issue.[134.1] WHO coordinates a global surveillance system for antimicrobial use and resistance trends, working with countries to enhance their capacity to gather and analyze data, which is crucial for informed policy-making.[135.1] The WHO's Global Action Plan on AMR, established at the 2017 World Health Assembly, calls for countries to develop national action plans that encompass various strategies, including surveillance, prescribing practices, infection prevention, and education.[136.1] The multifaceted nature of AMR necessitates strengthened global governance mechanisms to coordinate responses effectively.[137.1] Initiatives like the Global Antibiotic Research and Development Partnership (GARP) have fostered dialogue for coordinated antibiotic policy across multiple countries, leading to comprehensive reports on global patterns in antibiotic resistance and use.[138.1] The COVID-19 pandemic has further underscored the importance of equitable access to healthcare and the need for resilient health systems, particularly in low-resource settings. The pandemic highlighted disparities in healthcare access, with only a small percentage of vaccines administered in low-income countries.[139.1] Moving forward, a progressive transition from pandemic response to recovery must focus on building sustainable health systems that leverage lessons learned during the pandemic.[140.1] An integrated health system strengthening approach is essential for achieving universal health coverage and global health security goals.[141.1]In this section:
Governance And Policy
Role of the World Health Organization (WHO)
The World Health Organization (WHO) is instrumental in addressing health inequities and shaping global health governance. Established in 2008, the WHO's Commission on Social Determinants of Health highlighted the significance of non-medical factors in health outcomes, paving the way for new insights into health disparities.[183.1] Despite this, a recent review suggests that the WHO's strategies for health equity are sometimes ambiguous, potentially hindering their effectiveness.[184.1] To bolster its impact, the WHO has developed an operational framework to monitor social determinants of health equity, aiding countries in evidence-based policymaking.[185.1] It also provides resources for health inequality monitoring, offering guidance to address health disparities.[187.1] However, the WHO's focus often remains on individual behavioral factors, overlooking broader societal structures crucial for effective health promotion.[186.1] The COVID-19 pandemic has underscored weaknesses in global health governance, emphasizing the need for improved coordination and accountability among nations.[189.1] This crisis has sparked discussions on necessary reforms, including a potential international treaty on pandemics to enhance global health governance.[190.1] The urgency of the pandemic has also led to rapid law-making, sometimes at the expense of thorough scrutiny.[191.1] In response, there is a consensus on the need for radical reforms within global health institutions to ensure diverse and representative decision-making bodies.[194.1] The WHO's efforts to amend the International Health Regulations (IHR) at the World Health Assembly in May 2024 demonstrate a commitment to reforming global health law to better address future public health emergencies.[195.1] Additionally, the WHO advocates for financial support for low-income countries to strengthen their health systems, urging high-income countries to meet their international assistance commitments.[196.1]International Health Regulations and Frameworks
International Health Regulations (IHR) and frameworks play a crucial role in shaping global health governance. The IHR, established in 2005, aim to enhance global health security by providing a legal framework for countries to report and respond to public health emergencies. However, the limitations of the IHR have been highlighted during the COVID-19 pandemic, revealing that the World Health Organization (WHO) lacks the authority to enforce compliance with its technical guidance, which has significant implications for international health governance.[182.1] In response to the challenges exposed by the pandemic, there are ongoing discussions regarding the amendment of the IHR and the establishment of a new Pandemic Agreement, which are expected to be concluded by the World Health Assembly in May 2024.[202.1] These discussions underscore the need for reforms that incorporate principles of good health governance, including equity, transparency, and accountability, to better prepare for future health crises.[168.1] The WHO's efforts to strengthen health systems governance are aligned with its Thirteenth General Programme of Work (2019–2023), which emphasizes the importance of enhancing health systems governance to achieve Universal Health Coverage (UHC) and meet targets beyond Sustainable Development Goal 3 (SDG 3).[166.1] This collaborative approach aims to support countries in effectively managing their health systems and implementing necessary reforms.[164.1] The COVID-19 pandemic has emerged as a significant geopolitical challenge, exacerbating existing tensions and reshaping the global landscape, particularly in the context of international health governance.[188.1] Over the past two decades, global health diplomacy and policy have undergone substantial changes, with diplomacy becoming a fundamental component of the global health governance system.[165.1] The pandemic has intensified the challenges faced by multilateral cooperation, highlighting the integral role of global health in geopolitics.[165.1] Furthermore, there have been increasing calls to decolonize global health, which emphasize the persistence of colonial structures in health research, especially in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs).[201.1] A crucial step towards addressing these issues involves fostering equitable leadership in global health partnerships, ensuring that the voices and needs of researchers in LMICs are prioritized.[201.1]Emerging Trends
One Health Approach
The One Health approach emphasizes the interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental health, recognizing that the health of each domain is interdependent. This holistic perspective is increasingly relevant in the context of emerging infectious diseases, where technology plays a crucial role in surveillance and management. Recent advancements in internet-based surveillance have significantly enhanced the capacity to monitor infectious diseases, driven by improvements in computational capabilities and the widespread adoption of smart devices. These technological developments have been complemented by the integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI), which facilitates more efficient data analysis and decision-making processes in public health.[224.1] Moreover, the last decade has witnessed a growing recognition of the impact of environmental factors, such as climate change and land use alterations, on the emergence and spread of infectious diseases. These pressures not only increase the threat of pandemics but also necessitate a collaborative approach that spans multiple sectors and disciplines. The One Health framework encourages international collaboration, leveraging technology to improve the efficacy and efficiency of disease monitoring efforts. This collaborative effort is essential for facilitating prompt action and informed public health decision-making, ultimately enhancing global health security.[224.1]Impact of Globalization on Health
Globalization has significantly influenced the landscape of international health, primarily through the interconnectedness of nations and the rapid dissemination of information and technologies. The emergence of cross-border infectious diseases has heightened global awareness and urgency, prompting a shift in research priorities and public interest towards global health issues.[206.1] This evolution reflects a broader understanding of health that transcends national boundaries, as global health has expanded from its historical roots in tropical medicine and international health to encompass a wide array of well-being factors addressed by various organizations.[211.1] Recent trends indicate that technological advancements, geopolitical shifts, and lessons learned from global health challenges are shaping the future of health care. For instance, the integration of digital technologies and artificial intelligence (AI) is transforming health care access and outcomes, particularly for vulnerable populations.[219.1] The ongoing digital transformation is expected to enhance patient engagement and improve health care delivery, making it a crucial component of health strategies in the context of globalization.[234.1] Moreover, the socio-political context, influenced by factors such as G2 tensions and social unrest, continues to affect health outcomes globally. As nations grapple with these evolving challenges, the healthcare outlook reflects a dynamic landscape characterized by innovation and inclusivity.[212.1] The need for international collaboration has become increasingly evident, as coordinated responses to health threats yield greater benefits than isolated national efforts.[222.1] This collaborative approach is essential for addressing the complexities of global health, particularly in the face of emerging infectious diseases and other health crises.In this section:
Case Studies
Successful International Health Programs
Successful international health programs often leverage the case study approach to provide in-depth, multi-faceted explorations of complex health issues within real-life settings. This methodology is particularly valuable in health services research, where it allows for detailed examinations of specific events and the implementation of health interventions in various disease areas across low and middle-income countries (LMICs).[253.1] The case study approach is recognized for its ability to deliver patient-centered, evidence-based, and safe healthcare services, making it an essential tool for analyzing and understanding the complexities of health systems.[252.1] A key characteristic of case study methodology is the use of multiple data collection methods, which enhances the credibility of findings by allowing different facets and perspectives of the phenomenon to be explored. Common methods include interviews, focus groups, observations, and document analysis. This triangulation of data sources generates a rich, context-rich description of the case, facilitating a greater understanding of the health issues at hand.[254.1] In the field of healthcare education, case-based learning (CBL) is a well-established pedagogical method that enhances the learning experience for healthcare professionals. This approach involves learning activities centered around patient cases, allowing students to integrate basic, social, and clinical sciences with real-life clinical presentations and conditions.[259.1] The effectiveness of CBL is particularly notable in multicultural medical schools, where students from diverse backgrounds engage with case studies that reflect a variety of cultural contexts.[258.1] Such engagement promotes active learning and critical thinking skills, which are essential for navigating the complexities of international health.[255.1] Furthermore, the growing field of Global Health (GH) emphasizes the relevance of skills developed through CBL across all health professions and specialties, particularly in addressing the global burden of disease and health disparities.[261.1] While many medical schools have made strides in integrating global health concepts into their curricula, this teaching is often limited to optional modules due to time and resource constraints.[262.1] Overall, CBL serves as a valuable strategy for enhancing inter-professional education, providing learning opportunities that foster collaboration among healthcare professional students.[256.1] Successful international health programs in low and middle-income countries (LMICs) often rely on routine data to identify coverage gaps in reproductive, maternal, newborn, and child health (RMNCH) interventions. Policymakers and public health officials utilize estimates from this data to determine which specific health issues and populations require targeted attention, ensuring that case studies yield valuable insights for public health interventions.[266.1] Additionally, the growing burden of non-communicable diseases (NCDs), such as diabetes, hypertension, and cardiovascular diseases, poses a significant public health challenge in LMICs. This challenge is exacerbated by rapid urbanization and associated inequalities, which profoundly impact healthcare provision and health-seeking behaviors.[267.1]Lessons from Health Crises (e.g., Ebola, COVID-19)
Case studies from low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) provide valuable insights into health crises and can inform health policy decisions in high-income countries. For instance, the governance of health systems in LMICs is crucial for addressing high mortality and morbidity rates following injuries. A study evaluating governance for injury care in Ghana, Pakistan, Rwanda, and South Africa highlights the diverse contexts and challenges faced by these countries, which can offer lessons for improving health governance in more affluent nations.[270.1] Moreover, qualitative research conducted in informal settlements in Freetown, Sierra Leone, sheds light on the health-seeking behaviors related to non-communicable diseases (NCDs) such as diabetes and hypertension. This study emphasizes the importance of understanding the roles of informal healthcare providers and family caregivers in managing health conditions, suggesting that high-income countries could benefit from engaging with these informal networks to enhance healthcare delivery and referrals, especially in underserved areas.[269.1] In selecting health issues for case studies in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), researchers critically examine best practices for case study research and case selection. They prioritize objective, analytical needs of research design, referred to as "appropriateness," while also considering overlooked factors such as feasibility, which includes positionality, resources, skills, and interest.[264.1] A key characteristic of case study methodology is the use of multiple data collection methods, which enhances the credibility of findings by allowing different facets and views of the phenomenon to be explored.[265.1] Common methods employed in this approach include interviews, focus groups, observation, and document analysis.[265.1] By seeking patterns within and across these data sources, researchers can generate a thick description of the case, which supports a greater understanding and interpretation of the health phenomena under investigation.[265.1] This technique, known as triangulation, is essential for exploring cases with greater accuracy.[265.1]In this section:
References
[1] International Health - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics — International Health, Geographic Medicine, and the New (Transitional) International Health International Health. In the early 1980s, one definition of international health focused on health activities between governments or people from two or more nations, thus including WHO disease control programs, clinical services provided by medical missions and corporations, overseas research by
[3] International health - Wikipedia — Many international health NGOs operate in consultative status with the United Nations, allowing them to collaborate directly with UN bodies and the World Health Organization (WHO) to address global health challenges. For example, the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) partners with the UN to provide emergency health services, especially during crises such as the COVID-19 pandemic. The pandemic highlighted the critical role of international health organizations, with entities like the WHO coordinating global responses, including vaccine distribution through the COVAX initiative. In addition, prominent organizations like the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation work closely with UN-affiliated agencies, focusing on health innovation, such as developing affordable vaccines and strengthening healthcare systems.
[4] International Health Regulations - World Health Organization (WHO) — While disease outbreaks and other acute public health risks are often unpredictable and require a range of responses, the International Health Regulations (2005) (IHR) provide an overarching legal framework that defines countries’ rights and obligations in handling public health events and emergencies that have the potential to cross borders. Assess and report: Use the decision instrument in Annex 2 of the IHR to assess public health event and report to WHO through their National IHR Focal Point those that may constitute a public health emergency of international concern The International Health Regulations (2005) (IHR) provide an overarching legal framework that defines countries’ rights and obligations in handling public health events and emergencies that have the potential to cross borders.
[5] International Health - Encyclopedia.com — INTERNATIONAL HEALTH In its broadest sense international health (sometimes referred to as "global health") is a systematic consideration of all the factors that affect the health of human populations. Among these factors are the genetic, ethnic, and cultural makeup of individuals and groups; the natural environment, including biologic, physical, and climatologic aspects; the political and
[6] Delivering Culturally Competent Care to Migrants by Healthcare ... - MDPI — Cultural knowledge is the continuous effort to gain understanding about different cultural practices, health beliefs, ... The Refugee and International Health Program in Minneapolis, Minnesota, offers culturally sensitive mental health services to refugees from various countries. ... The integration of interpreters and cultural mediators into
[7] WHO recommends considering cultural factors to develop more inclusive ... — WHO/Europe strongly recommends the integration of intercultural mediators into health-care systems across the European Region to provide equitable care to refugees and migrants. While responding to COVID-19 and developing strategies to transition to a "new normal", Member States should implement measures that are culturally sensitive to
[8] Culturally tailored interventions for ethnic minorities: A scoping ... — Culturally tailored interventions have been shown promising care coordination that improving access to healthcare systems and clinical outcomes to ethnic minorities (Joo, 2014; Joo & Liu, 2020; Torres‐Ruiz et al. Since the Healthy People 2030 goal for improving health and well‐being in the United States demonstrated the importance of patient‐centred research (HealthyPeople.gov, 2020), the need for cultural tailoring of interventions, studies and practices for populations with ethnic minorities has increased (Torres‐Ruiz et al. “In order to achieve a more culturally‐appropriate approach in our study, all of our research project leaders and interventionists underwent training, prior to the start of the trial, for culturally responsive care and building trust and strengthening provider/patient relationships, and hopefully increase the study participants’ adherence to the interventions (Nguyen‐Huynha et al. In the included studies, interventions were designed and delivered relevant to ethnic minorities’ cultural mores (Islam et al.
[13] Health | The Oxford Handbook of International Organizations | Oxford ... — This chapter discusses how the landscape for global health governance has evolved. It finds that the political importance of health as an international and global issue has changed radically. International health organizations started with a mandate to control the spread of infectious diseases between countries as a by-product of trade.
[14] Global public health leadership: The vital element in managing global ... — The World Health Organization (WHO) and the International Health Regulations Treaty (IHRT) are responsible for modelling global public health crises, and management and mitigation of their consequences. ... A major role for Public Health and public education is a critical ingredient of a flexible response system in an age of increasing weather
[16] Navigating global health diplomacy: challenges and opportunities in ... — Addressing global health challenges requires complex coordination and collaboration between actors, often through the process of Global Health Diplomacy (GHD). Although considerable scholarship argues the importance of improving this process to build better health policies and systems, few studies have investigated the 'health diplomats' directly leading this work. In this study, we seek
[17] Health emergencies - World Health Organization (WHO) — We work with countries and partners around the world, around the clock, to prepare for, prevent, detect and respond to disease outbreaks and other health emergencies. We work around the world to research, prevent and manage epidemic and pandemic-prone diseases; to strengthen and expand systems to rapidly detect, investigate and assess potential threats to public health; and to respond immediately and systematically to manage acute emergencies. The Health Security Preparedness mission is to enable countries to apply evidence-based data and actions in strengthening and sustaining functional capacities to prevent, detect and respond to public health emergencies.
[18] Pandemics and Preparedness: Strengthening International Public Health ... — Preparedness and response mechanisms must be proactive rather than reactive, leveraging global cooperation, scientific innovation, and robust health policies to mitigate the effects of future pandemics. Strengthening international health systems requires investment in disease surveillance, rapid diagnostics, vaccine research, healthcare
[19] 9 - Pandemics and Health Security: Risks to Global Stability — The effects of health security successes and failures can influence foreign policy, society, and security. Pandemics are a truly global threat. Nations cannot shelter in place and avoid an infectious disease. Pandemics have underscored that treating health security as a niche issue for a small number of stakeholders will fail.
[46] Global Health History: Key Milestones | Vaia — Key Milestones in Global Health History: Important events include the eradication of smallpox in 1980, achieved through global cooperation led by the World Health Organization. Impact of Historical Pandemics: Events like the Spanish Flu in 1918 highlighted the importance of advancements in medical research and public health infrastructure.
[47] WHO and its transformation - A journey from 1978 to 2024 — The Alma-Ata Declaration of 1978 (6-12 September, 1978) emerged as a milestone of the 20 th century in the field of public health, and it identified comprehensive primary health care as the key to the attainment of the goal of "Health for All by 2000 A.D." It was jointly sponsored by the World Health Organization and the United Nations
[48] Timeline of CDC's Global Health Milestones from - Centers for Disease ... — Timeline of CDC’s Global Health Milestones from CDC launched the Global Disease Detection Operations Center in Atlanta, Georgia. CDC established the Center for Global Health. CDC launched the Global Rapid Response Team (GRRT) to rapidly respond to global public health concerns, both within the United States and around the world. CDC is responding to COVID-19 and building on decades of global collaboration by deploying the GRRT domestically and serving as credible scientific and technical experts with international partners and partner country governments for COVID-19 science and public health practice. Timeline of CDC’s Global Health Milestones from 1942-2021 CDC’s Technical Expertise and Partnerships Promote Health Security and Global Good Get CDC’s free global health newsletter each week! About CDC
[49] Timeline of global health - Wikipedia — More specific disease-targeting organizations are created primarily to fund healthcare plans in developing countries, including the President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief and The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria. These organizations (especially the WHO) adopt new strategies and initiatives, including the 3 by 5 Initiative to widen the access to antiretroviral treatment, the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, etc. Private large donors such as the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation begin to play an important role in shaping the funding landscape and direction of efforts in global health.
[50] After the Astana declaration: is comprehensive primary health care set ... — Primary health care (PHC) strengthening in order to achieve the Sustainable Development Goal has again, 40 years after the Alma-Ata declaration, been declared a priority by the global health community. Despite initial progress the Alma-Ata vision of Health for All by the year 2000 was not realised. In this analysis we (1) examine the challenges that comprehensive PHC faced after the Alma-Ata
[52] Declaration of Alma-Ata - World Health Organization (WHO) — Health Topics The Conference strongly reaffirms that health, which is a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity, is a fundamental human right and that the attainment of the highest possible level of health is a most important world-wide social goal whose realization requires the action of many other social and economic sectors in addition to the health sector. It forms an integral part both of the country's health system, of which it is the central function and main focus, and of the overall social and economic development of the community. A genuine policy of independence, peace, détente, and disarmament could and should release additional resources that could well be devoted to peaceful aims and in particular to the acceleration of social and economic development of which primary health care, as an essential part, should be allotted its proper share.
[53] The enduring legacy of Alma Ata: 30 years on - PMC - PubMed Central (PMC) — However, in recent years, there has been a revitalisation of primary healthcare. This article reviews the Alma Ata conference and declaration, assesses its waxing and waning, and examines its recent revival. The paper draws conclusions about the relevance of Alma Ata, 30 years on. Keywords: Alma Ata, implementation, primary healthcare
[54] Understanding the Alma-Ata Declaration's Impact on Global Health — Understanding the Alma-Ata Declaration's Impact on Global Health • BA Notes Understanding the Alma-Ata Declaration’s Impact on Global Health One such event was the Alma-Ata Declaration, a groundbreaking agreement that redefined primary health care and its role in global well-being. The Alma-Ata Declaration: A Revolutionary Vision for Global Health Legacy of the Alma-Ata Declaration in Today’s Health Policies The Alma-Ata Declaration: A Revolutionary Vision for Global Health 🔗 The tension between the comprehensive approach of the Alma-Ata Declaration and the selective approach of the Bellagio Conference reflects an ongoing debate in public health. Legacy of the Alma-Ata Declaration in Today’s Health Policies 🔗 Despite the debates and evolution in health policy thinking, the Alma-Ata Declaration’s influence is undeniable.
[56] PDF — D. A. HENDERSON' The eradication ofsmallpox required a unique, fully collaborative international effort on the part of WHO and Member States. In the course of the programme, many lessons were learned in its organization, execution and evaluation which have implications for other international activities. Most important among these was the need to establish measurable objectives and to evaluate
[57] Commemorating Smallpox Eradication - a legacy of hope, for COVID-19 and ... — The strategies used to eradicate smallpox still apply today." "Lessons learned from smallpox are used today to respond to disease outbreaks. For example, house-to-house active case-finding underpins the polio eradication programme, and ring vaccination of contacts is helping to combat the spread of the Ebola virus disease.
[64] PDF — How is Covid-19 likely to impact the role of the philanthropic sector long-term and what cross-cutting strategic questions does this raise? "Anecdotal evidence suggests that total giving by many foundations will increase as many are viewing the Covid-19 crisis as a "hundred-year storm" that calls for outsize near-term investment into the
[67] Philanthropy for health: past, present, and future - The Lancet — These questions are not new, but they are more pressing than ever, because philanthropy in health is here to stay. As concerns over the willingness of national governments to fund global health programmes have grown in recent years, organisations are turning to private institutions, including philanthropy, to make up the shortfall.
[85] Publication Item - World Health Organization (WHO) — Overview . This publication presents the findings of a global horizon scan, conducted by a group of international experts, on emerging technologies and trends relevant to global public health conducted in 2020 and 2021. ... The group identified 15 new and emerging technologies and scientific advances that may have a significant impact on global
[86] Six global health innovations to watch in 2025 — Jenn Gardy, deputy director of special initiatives at the Gates Foundation, appears in front of the Future of Health exhibit at CES 2025 in Las Vegas. At CES 2025, one of the world’s largest technology trade shows, groundbreaking healthcare innovations took center stage, showcasing their potential to transform global health and save children’s lives all over the world. Whether it’s novel vaccines and medicines, low-cost diagnostics, or creative solutions to support mothers during pregnancy, innovation has always been critical to improving health and well-being—and since the year 2000 has played a key role in cutting global child mortality in half. In 2023, the World Health Organization (WHO) issued a strong recommendation for use of the new nets, which have the potential to help save more lives and accelerate efforts to end malaria.
[87] Health Overview: Development news, research, data | World Bank — Improving health outcomes is a key focus at the World Bank Group. Together with partners, the WBG has provided health services to 750 million people over the last five years.This is the result of the World Bank's strong focus on preserving and strengthening primary health care systems to cope with health emergencies, and providing services for the most vulnerable, crisis-hit, and hardest-to
[88] Global health achievements 2023 - World Health Organization (WHO) — It was a year to reflect on 75 years of global health achievements, while facing the multiple and complex challenges affecting our health today. This milestone anniversary served as a powerful reminder of how working together in global solidarity has enabled us to rise to complex challenges in the past, and will continue to do so in the future. Here are just some of the global health highlights that offered hope in 2023. 26 December 2023 ### Dr Tedros end of 2023 message: Keeping the hope for health alive Eliminating diseases The year 2023 was a record year for disease elimination, with several countries eliminating infectious diseases thanks to dedicated national efforts, and collaborative action by countries and health partners worldwide.
[89] Big Data Analytics, Infectious Diseases and Associated Ethical Impacts — Big data analytics is fast becoming a crucial component for the modelling of transmission-aiding infection control measures and policies-emergency response analyses required during local or international outbreaks. However, the application of big data analytics in infectious diseases is coupled with a number of ethical impacts.
[90] PDF — Predicting disease outbreaks has become a cornerstone in the field of epidemiology, and the integration of advanced data analytics has emerged as a transformative force in this endeavor (Lazer et al., 2014). Integrating laboratory data with epidemiological information enhances the specificity of predictive models, enabling a more nuanced understanding of the etiology and dynamics of infectious diseases (Gronvall et al., 2013). Predictive models informed by social and demographic data provide a more comprehensive understanding of disease transmission dynamics (Tatem et al., 2006). Integrating climate data into models and exploring the intersection of climate science and public health contribute to more accurate predictions (Patz et al., 2008). Bridging data disparities contributes to more inclusive and effective disease outbreak prediction (Eubank et al., 2004).
[91] Big Data and Analytics for Infectious Disease Research ... - PubMed — With a wide range of data available for analysis, decision-making and policy-making processes could be improved. While there are many opportunities for big data to be used for infectious disease research, operations, and policy, many challenges remain before it is possible to capture the full potential of big data.
[92] Digital health diplomacy and universal health coverage - PMC — The Panel’s key recommendations included building an inclusive digital economy, developing capacity, protecting human rights, promoting digital security and fostering global cooperation.1 The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic accelerated the shift to virtual platforms, which created opportunities for change in diplomacy, policy-making, health care and societal engagement.2 However, considerable disparities in access to digital health solutions and lack of connectivity and inclusive digital health policies persist, particularly in low- and middle-income countries, making it a diplomatic challenge that requires global action. The health sector must collaborate with foreign affairs departments and multilateral organizations to prioritize the needs of the most vulnerable, and use digital transformation to promote social justice and health equity.4 In this article, we advocate for a renewed focus on digital health diplomacy, highlighting its transformative role in achieving these outcomes, and urging governments and stakeholders to work together to ensure that digital health innovations contribute to resilient, accessible and equitable health systems.
[93] Transforming Healthcare in Low-Resource Settings With Artificial ... — Transforming Healthcare in Low-Resource Settings With Artificial Intelligence: Recent Developments and Outcomes - PubMed Search: Search Your saved search Name of saved search: Add to Search Add to Search Aim: This comprehensive review aims to explore the transformative impact of AI across diverse healthcare domains, highlighting its applications, advancements, challenges, and contributions to enhancing patient care. The implementation of AI in low-resource settings has been particularly impactful, enhancing access to advanced diagnostic tools and treatments. This review underscores AI's transformative potential, from early disease detection to personalized treatment plans, and its ability to augment healthcare delivery, particularly in resource-limited settings. Keywords: AI applications in health care; AI‐enhanced diagnostics; artificial intelligence in healthcare; machine learning in medicine; predictive analytics in healthcare.
[96] Artificial intelligence for access to primary healthcare in rural settings — Artificial intelligence for access to primary healthcare in rural settings - ScienceDirect Artificial intelligence for access to primary healthcare in rural settings Artificial Intelligence (AI) may enhance access to primary health care in rural settings, especially in areas with an underserved and rural populace, due to systemic challenges in infrastructure inadequacies, shortages of trained professionals, and poor preventive measures. This paper discusses the transformative roles of AI technologies in the efforts toward bridging these gaps by improving healthcare delivery and access. While AI, Internet of Things (IoT), and mobile health (mHealth) technologies create innovative solutions in remote monitoring and consultation, these technologies help promote prevention. No articles found. For all open access content, the Creative Commons licensing terms apply.
[97] (PDF) Transforming Healthcare Delivery: Innovative Telemedicine ... — Abstract Innovative telemedicine applications are revolutionizing healthcare delivery, particularly in low-resource settings where access to quality healthcare services is limited.
[98] Telemedicine in low-resource settings - Frontiers — Apparently, telemedicine is sometimes viewed as a threat or a competitor to conventional ways of working. Yet, telemedicine is simply another tool for assisting in the delivery of health care, and in low-resource settings there is often no other way to access the required resources.
[99] SERIES: eHealth in primary care. Part 6: Global perspectives: Learning ... — The analysis of the case studies provides evidence of the successful implementation of eHealth in low-resource primary care settings in LMIC and HIC and can be used as guidance for similar applications or contexts. ... AfyaPro is an example for countries with developed health systems that shows the advantages of collaborating in developing and
[100] Evaluating High-tech Health Approaches in Low-income Countries — Pesinet, a health program operating in Bamako, Mali, is harnessing new technologies to address malnutrition, which accounts for more than 50 percent of child deaths.Every week, Pesinet health workers visit enrolled children and collect health data on their mobile phones. It then sends this data to a web interface at a health facility for review by a physician, who determines which children are
[109] Strengthening primary health care in low- and middle-income countries ... — Strengthening primary health care (PHC) is the most cost-effective approach in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) to achieve sustainable universal health coverage (UHC), protect against health shocks, and promote health and wellbeing for all people. We propose five gamechangers to facilitate structural changes for strengthening PHC through a focused health systems approach: (i) integration of client-centered health services at PHC level; (ii) digitization of PHC services; (iii) efficiency gains invested in essential health services; (iv) strengthening management practices for PHC at district and facility levels; and (v) advancing community engagement for PHC.
[128] These Are the 13 Most Pressing Global Health Issues This Decade — 3. Making health care accessible to everyone With the overall increase of cancer, diabetes, and other noncommunicable diseases worldwide, access to quality health care for all is essential in reducing health inequality. Whether it is a new vaccine-resistant strain of influenza or the continued spread of various mosquito-transmitted diseases like malaria, it is important for countries to focus on preparedness and preventative measures by investing in health care and infrastructure. To keep global health care systems afloat, the world requires an additional 18 million health care workers by the end of 2030. Groups like the anti-vaccination movement, for instance, use social media to spread misinformation, eroding public trust in health care institutions on a global scale.
[129] 10 global health issues to track in 2021 - World Health Organization (WHO) — A previously unknown virus raced around the world, rapidly emerging as one of its top killers, laying bare the inadequacies of health systems. Today, health services in all regions are struggling to both tackle COVID-19, and provide people with vital care. In another blow, the pandemic threatens to set back hard-won global health progress achieved over the past two decades - in fighting infectious diseases, for example, and improving maternal and child health. So in 2021, countries around the world will need to continue battle COVID-19 (albeit with the knowledge that effective tools are evolving).
[131] Climate Change and Cascading Risks from Infectious Disease — Abstract. Climate change is adversely affecting the burden of infectious disease throughout the world, which is a health security threat. Climate-sensitive infectious disease includes vector-borne diseases such as malaria, whose transmission potential is expected to increase because of enhanced climatic suitability for the mosquito vector in Asia, sub-Saharan Africa, and South America.
[132] Climate Change and the Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases in the ... — Paul J Edelson, Rachel Harold, Joel Ackelsberg, Jeffrey S Duchin, Steven J Lawrence, Yukari C Manabe, Matt Zahn, Regina C LaRocque, Climate Change and the Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases in the United States, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Volume 76, Issue 5, 1 March 2023, Pages 950–956, https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciac697 Improving surveillance for emerging and established pathogens and expanding monitoring and analysis of climatic and environmental changes as they relate to infectious disease epidemiology can help public health professionals anticipate and respond to the infectious disease impacts of climate change. As both the direct and indirect effects of climate change increase, the medical and public health communities will have more responsibilities to recognize and respond to changes in the epidemiology of infectious diseases.
[133] Impact of climate change on human infectious diseases: Empirical ... — Impact of climate change on human infectious diseases: Empirical evidence and human adaptation - ScienceDirect Impact of climate change on human infectious diseases: Empirical evidence and human adaptation Climate change impacts human infectious disease via pathogen, host and transmission. This review examines the scientific evidences on the impact of climate change on human infectious diseases. The following adaptation measures are recommended: 1) to go beyond empirical observations of the association between climate change and infectious diseases and develop more scientific explanations, 2) to improve the prediction of spatial–temporal process of climate change and the associated shifts in infectious diseases at various spatial and temporal scales, and 3) to establish locally effective early warning systems for the health effects of predicated climate change.
[134] A 'whole of United Nations approach' to tackle antimicrobial resistance ... — The 2015 World Health Organization Global Action Plan and other international policy documents have stressed the need for a 'whole of United Nations approach' in addressing antimicrobial resistance (AMR). As several years have passed, the goal of
[135] Our Work | Antimicrobial resistance - World Health Organization (WHO) — WHO coordinates a global system for the surveillance of antimicrobial use and resistance trends. WHO works with countries and partners to build the surveillance and laboratory capacity of countries to gather data that can be analysed and compared to build a global and regional picture and enable countries to make informed policy choices on antimicrobial use, based on sound data and evidence.
[136] Antimicrobial resistance - The role of public health organizations in ... — The WHO’s Global Action Plan on AMR, agreed at the 2017 World Health Assembly, clearly states the expectation that countries will develop their own national action plans on antimicrobial resistance. A recent comparative analysis of nine selected national strategies and policies (including France, Germany, Sweden and the United Kingdom) commissioned by the Swiss Federal Office of Public Health (FOPH) found that the main areas of work covered by the strategies included surveillance and monitoring, prescribing practices and regulations, infection prevention and control, awareness and education, research and development, collaboration and coordination mechanisms, as well as preparation of the required framework for action (Bonk, 2015).
[137] Fostering international cooperation on antimicrobial resistance — Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) presents the global community with a significant challenge, in terms of depth, breadth and complexity. As the threat posed by resistant genes and drug-resistant infections continues to grow, so do calls for strengthened and formal global governance mechanisms to coordinate the response to AMR. The multifaceted, multi-sector and multi-stakeholder nature of the AMR
[138] A review of global initiatives to fight antibiotic resistance and ... — GARP fostered the initiation of a dialog for coordinated antibiotic policy in eight countries which led to the development of a comprehensive world antibiotics report that discusses global patterns in ABR and use, policy interventions and state of R&D pipeline for new drugs. For example, in 2015, the World Health Assembly endorsed the Global Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance and invited all countries to adopt national strategies for ABR control, prevention, and monitoring within two years. N. gonorrhoeae causes 246,000 drug-resistant infections every year and is showing resistance to antibiotics usually used to treat it, including cefixime (an oral cephalosporin), ceftriaxone (an injectable cephalosporin), azithromycin, and tetracycline.
[139] Innovative approaches to strengthening health systems in low- and ... — The pandemic has highlighted the disproportionate impact of healthcare on different sections of the population and the uneven access to health services – only one per cent of COVID-19 vaccines have been administered within low-income countries . Thus, formulating approaches to harness social capital as a valuable resource for engaging stakeholders in the design of co-created healthcare solutions, or developing trusted health information and knowledge networks may be necessary for developing strong and effective health systems in LMICs. Therefore, understanding innovative approaches to strengthening health systems in LMICs necessitates a multi-dimensional exploration of the following themes:
[140] Strategy for Building Resilient Health Systems and Post-COVID-19 ... — A progressive transition from pandemic response to recovery will require a renewed focus on building sustainable, resilient health systems, informed by and building on the COVID-19 response.
[141] Strategies to Promote Health System Strengthening and Global Health ... — By pursuing an integrated health system strengthening (HSS) approach, which encompasses strategies, responses, and activities designed to promote sustained improvements in health systems performance, countries are more likely to reach and maintain UHC and GHS goals.
[143] Community-Level Interventions to Reduce Disparities - NIMHD — Community-Level Interventions to Improve Minority Health and Reduce Health Disparities The purpose of this initiative is to support research to develop and test community-level interventions to improve minority health and reduce health disparities. Interventions that include community-wide elements (e.g., a public health campaign about COVID-19 vaccination), but intervention effects are tested only at the individual or interpersonal/organizational level. Download the full research concept paper: Community-Level Interventions to Improve Minority Health and Reduce Health Disparities (PDF, 270 KB) The National Advisory Council on Minority Health and Health Disparities (NACMHD) approves research concepts during Advisory Council meetings to help researchers stay abreast of topical areas of interest that are likely to become FOAs. Contact
[144] Community-Level Strategies for Addressing Disparities in ... - PubMed — Community-Level Strategies for Addressing Disparities in Healthy People 2030 Leading Health Indicators - PubMed Community-Level Strategies for Addressing Disparities in Healthy People 2030 Leading Health Indicators Community-Level Strategies for Addressing Disparities in Healthy People 2030 Leading Health Indicators Context: The Healthy People 2030 Leading Health Indicators (LHIs) offer a select set of measurable objectives to help community-based organizations focus their efforts to improve health equity and reduce health disparities across the lifespan within the populations they serve. Design: NORC conducted 9 qualitative interviews with Healthy People 2030 Champions, organizations dedicated to furthering Healthy People goals and objectives, who are working to address disparities within infant mortality, maternal mortality, and food insecurity through a variety of strategies, interventions, and programs. https://health.gov/healthypeople/tools-action/use-healthy-people-2030-yo...
[145] The Role of Communities in Promoting Health Equity — Qualitative and practice-based studies have suggested that certain attributes—including leadership, a backbone or an integrator organization, an infrastructure for collaboration, a common vision, shared language, a strategy for diversifying funding—are required for communities to succeed in health improvement efforts (Community Tool Box, 2016; FSG, 2011, 2013; Hayes et al., 2012; Prybil et al., 2014; Verbitsky-Savitz et al., 2016), and many of these are likely to apply to community efforts to organize and mobilize for health equity as well. Evidence from the sociology of social movements may be useful in this context, given the centrality of community organizing to community-driven change efforts (Skocpol et al., 2000), the nearly three-decades-long Healthy Communities movement (Norris and Pittman, 2000), and the relationship between mobilization for political participation and shared membership in a voluntary organization (Campbell, 2013) such as a community health coalition.
[146] Community participation in health services development, implementation ... — Community participation in health services development, implementation, and evaluation: A systematic review of empowerment, health, community, and process outcomes Eligible studies included those that involved the community, service users, consumers, households, patients, public and their representatives in the development, implementation, and evaluation of health services, policy or interventions. To our knowledge, there are no reviews of the existing systematic approaches that examine outcomes of community involvement in health service planning, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation for a variety of diseases in high and upper-middle income countries. We included all studies that involved the community, service users, consumers, households, patients, public and their representatives in the planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of health services, policy, or interventions.
[147] Projecting universal health risks under climate change to bridge ... — An innovative concept: projecting universal health risks under climate change to bridge mitigation and health adaptation objectives. Universal health: human health covering primary health outcomes (such as mortality and morbidity) from the entire population (considering key diseases, such as cardiovascular and respiratory system afflictions, age, regional geographic factors, etc.)
[148] Improving climate action through public health policy initiatives — Improving climate action through public health policy initiatives | Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health Home / Center for Climate, Health, and the Global Environment / News / Improving climate action through public health policy initiatives Improving climate action through public health policy initiatives Implementing public health policies that also include climate co-benefits may be a practical policy pathway to accelerate climate mitigation, according to experts at a pre-COP 28 workshop hosted by the International Society for Environmental Epidemiology Policy Committee. Experts recommend public health and health care professionals take these civic engagement actions to advance climate-friendly public health policies: Transitioning from climate ambitions to climate actions through public health policy initiatives. Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health
[164] Strengthening health systems governance - World Health Organization (WHO) — The overarching aim of WHO's work on governance is to strengthen health systems and advance their objectives while minimizing the risk of conflict and policy failure. Strengthening health systems governance is key to sustaining countries' efforts to run their health systems effectively; conduct the reforms necessary to deliver equitable, responsive, efficient and quality health services
[165] Global health diplomacy—reconstructing power and governance — Over the past two decades, global health diplomacy, foreign policy for health, and global health policy have changed substantially. Diplomacy is a constitutive part of the system of global health governance. COVID-19 hit the world when multilateral cooperation was subject to major challenges, and global health has since become integral to geopolitics. The importance of global health diplomacy
[166] Health Systems Governance - World Health Organization (WHO) — In line with the Thirteenth General Programme of Work 2019–2023, WHO works collaboratively across its three organizational levels, adopting a horizontal approach to pursue the following key objectives:call upon countries to strengthen the governance of their health systems for UHCprovide guidance on ways to enhance health systems governancesupport regions and countries in strengthening their health systems governance as needed.WHO’s work on the health systems governance not only supports countries in advancing the UHC agenda but has an impact on reaching the targets beyond SDG 3. WHO’s work on the health systems governance not only supports countries in advancing the UHC agenda but has an impact on reaching the targets beyond SDG 3.
[168] The Global Health Architecture: Governance and International ... — Policy Points Global health institutions and instruments should be reformed to fully incorporate the principles of good health governance: the right to health, equity, inclusive participation, transparency, accountability, and global solidarity. New legal instruments, like International Health Regul …
[182] Implications from COVID-19 for future pandemic global health governance ... — Limitations of current global health governance revealed during the COVID-19 pandemic can inform the ongoing deliberations of an international treaty on pandemics. ... WHO does not have the power to prevent nations from disregarding their technical guidance under the International Health Regulations 2005 (IHR 2005). ... lessons and innovations
[183] Action on the social determinants for advancing health equity in the ... — In 2008, the World Health Organization's (WHO) Commission on Social Determinants of Health (the Commission) report synthesized evidence on the causes of health inequities, focussing on the non-medical factors that influence health outcomes (the 'social' determinants of health) [].The work of the Commission set in motion new knowledge generation and theorization around the social
[184] Investigating inconsistencies regarding health equity in select World ... — Health inequity, "differences which are unnecessary and avoidable, but in addition, are considered unfair and unjust" [], is a major focus—the central focus according to some—in public and global health [].Despite this emphasis on health equity, a recent scoping review found that the World Health Organization (WHO) uses ambiguous and contradictory approaches to health equity [].
[185] WHO releases new guidance on monitoring the social determinants of ... — The World Health Organization (WHO) has released an operational framework for monitoring social determinants of health equity and actions addressing them. This critical new guidance aims to support countries in evidence-based policymaking to improve health equity, towards the goal of enabling everyone, everywhere, to attain the highest possible standard of health and well-being.
[186] Reducing Health Disparities to Promote Health Equity through Policy ... — Narrow emphasis on individual-level behavioral risk and protective factors ignores the essential need for broader health promotion strategies addressing community-level and societal structures outside of health care systems, such as housing, transportation, and environmental policy. Indeed, a "health in all policies" approach4 is vital to
[187] New WHO book on health inequality monitoring — A new WHO resource on health inequality monitoring charts a path for using data to characterize unfair differences in health and drive actions to tackle them. Released to the public on December 11, Health inequality monitoring: harnessing data to advance health equity is a contemporary, all-in-one guide to strengthen the impact of health inequality monitoring practices.Health inequality
[188] The Shifting Geopolitics of Coronavirus and the Demise of Neoliberalism ... — The world is facing a new geopolitical challenge in the pandemic caused by the spread of COVID-19. The world economy has shrunk by about 3%. The trade war between the United States and China and their defensive agreements with other countries was already a huge problem, but it has reached a critical stage due to COVID-19.
[189] Effective post-pandemic governance must focus on shared challenges — The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted profound weaknesses in the global governance of health; inadequate preparation, coordination, and accountability hampered the collective response of nations at each stage. Changes to the global health architecture are necessary to mitigate the health and socioeconomic damage of the ongoing pandemic, and to prepare for the next major global threat to health
[190] Implications from COVID-19 for future pandemic global health governance — Limitations of current global health governance revealed during the COVID-19 pandemic can inform the ongoing deliberations of an international treaty on pandemics. To report on WHO definitions for governance and the enforcement of treaties in the
[191] COVID-19, The Rule of Law and Democracy. Analysis of Legal Responses to ... — The COVID-19 pandemic has had a profound impact on governance globally. Where the efficacy of pandemic laws adopted by governments are a matter of life and death, the urgency with which action needs to be taken during a pandemic creates a law-making environment which incentivises rapid action without scrutiny and the use of power without restraint.
[194] Committing to anti-racism reforms? Three critical building blocks for ... — However, the task ahead is an enormous one that will require radical reforms, especially since global health institutions are neither global nor diverse ; for example, the 2022 Global Health 50/50 report highlights that approximately three-quarters of decisions-makers on governing boards of global health organisations are from high income
[195] Global health reform must continue amid new infectious ... - The BMJ — Use this momentum to negotiate an ambitious pandemic treaty The adoption of amendments to the International Health Regulations (IHR) at the World Health Assembly in May 2024 represents much needed reform of global health law to meet the challenges of future public health emergencies. Despite wavering confidence in international law and multilateralism, these reforms show "that consensus
[196] Reimagining global health systems for the 21st century: lessons from ... — However, LICs still require financial support to build their core capacities and health systems, designed according to the primary healthcare approach for a comprehensive public health.35 36 43 It is in the interest of HICs and MICs to provide support to strengthen the capacity of essential public health functions in LICs.22 HICs should continue to deliver their international assistance responsibility and cooperation obligations such as IHR.54 The COVID-19 pandemic urges countries to reshape their collective actions and international assistance for global common good.
[201] Achieving equitable leadership in Global Health partnerships: barriers ... — Calls to decolonize global health have highlighted the continued existence of colonial structures in research into diseases of public health importance particularly in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). A key step towards restructuring the system and shaping it to local needs is equitable leadership in global health partnerships. This requires ensuring that researchers in LMICs are
[202] Global health inequities: more challenges, some solutions — Global health inequities: more challenges, some solutions - PMC This theme issue of the Bulletin of the World Health Organization shows how health inequities affect many areas, both at national and global scale. In the ongoing negotiations for the amendment of the International Health Regulations 2005 (IHR), and for a Pandemic Agreement, both of which are expected to be concluded and adopted by the World Health Assembly in May 2024, a member of the IHR Review Committee provides insights on the complex landscape of global health security.13 WHO’s authority in global health security is eroding, and high-income countries use forum shifting to consolidate their positions. Another article published in this issue reports on an increasing trend of including corporate social responsibility provisions in international investment agreements.15 Despite varied detail of commitment, these provisions offer a potential tool to increase government guidance and the accountability of global corporations, including with respect to public health commitments.
[206] Global Health - emergence, hegemonic trends and biomedical reductionism ... — Abstract Background. Global Health has increasingly gained international visibility and prominence. First and foremost, the spread of cross-border infectious disease arouses a great deal of media and public interest, just as it drives research priorities of faculty and academic programmes.
[211] Global Health Issues, Challenges and Trends | AUC - AUC School of Medicine — Global health was once known as international health, and it was addressed by only a few aid organizations that dealt with outbreaks of disease or famine or other crises, such as the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF). Now global health includes a long list of well-being factors that are addressed by a multitude of groups and individuals.
[212] The Face of Healthcare in 2024 - Global Health Intelligence — Global factors such as G2 tensions, armed conflicts, and social unrest will continue to shape the socio-political context. As the world grapples with evolving health challenges, the healthcare outlook in 2024 reflects a dynamic landscape marked by innovation, inclusivity, and a commitment to improving overall population health. The big-picture view
[219] PDF — 12 Digital technologies and the stronger personal and aggregate health data that digital tools enable offer hope for helping overcome these many challenges and for improving health care access and outcomes – to reach the most vulnerable populations, to enable sound public health strategies that optimize impact, to make health care workers’ jobs easier and more efficient, to make finite financing go further and to provide individuals will the tools they need to make healthy decisions and set evidence-based priorities. Before COVID-19, digital technologies were already making important contributions to health, through such means as telemedicine, innovative uses of social media and mobile phones, and establishing health information systems for priority setting and resource allocations.
[222] Multi-country collaboration in responding to global infectious disease ... — This suggests that international coordination when responding to such outbreaks brings greater overall benefits than each country independently pursuing its own self-interest. In this Health Policy article, we examine the case for multilateral collaboration on threats from infectious disease.
[224] Internet-based Surveillance Systems and Infectious Diseases Prediction ... — The last decade has seen major advances and growth in internet-based surveillance for infectious diseases through advanced computational capacity, growing adoption of smart devices, increased availability of Artificial Intelligence (AI), alongside environmental pressures including climate and land use change contributing to increased threat and spread of pandemics and emerging infectious
[234] Telemedicine Milestones of 2024: Transforming Global Healthcare — Telemedicine saw significant advancements in 2024, driven by AI, wearables, and improved accessibility, which enhanced patient care, increased engagement, and addressed challenges such as data security and the digital divide. Over the past year, telemedicine has evolved into a mainstream component of healthcare, marked by remarkable technological advancements, improved accessibility and increasing acceptance among patients and providers. Telemedicine has shifted the healthcare paradigm by placing patients at the center of their care. AI and ML are set to enhance predictive analytics, enabling healthcare providers to anticipate patient needs and deliver preventative care more effectively. By leveraging cutting-edge technologies, improving patient access and fostering engagement, telemedicine creates a more inclusive and efficient healthcare landscape.
[252] Compendium of best practices and case studies in quality of care ... — They are integral to delivering patient-centred, evidence-based and safe health-care services. Similarly, case studies are an in-depth, detailed examination of specific real-life events that are used for education and to analyse and understand complex issues to make informed decisions and draw guidance from these shared experiences
[253] The "case" for case studies: why we need high-quality examples of ... — The case studies describe implementation research in various disease areas in LMICs around the world. This commentary highlights the value of case study methods commonly used in law and business schools as a source of "thick" (i.e., context-rich) description and a teaching tool for global implementation researchers.
[254] Continuing to enhance the quality of case study methodology in health ... — Using multiple data collection methods is a key characteristic of all case study methodology; it enhances the credibility of the findings by allowing different facets and views of the phenomenon to be explored.23 Common methods include interviews, focus groups, observation, and document analysis.5,37 By seeking patterns within and across data sources, a thick description of the case can be generated to support a greater understanding and interpretation of the whole phenomenon.5,17,20,23 This technique is called triangulation and is used to explore cases with greater accuracy.5 Although Stake5 maintains case study is most often used in qualitative research, Yin17 supports a mix of both quantitative and qualitative methods to triangulate data.
[255] Promotion of critical thinking by using case studies as ... - PubMed — Critical thinking and case studies are defined as teaching method. The benefits and limitations of case studies are also discussed. The literature review investigates research studies that have indicated how case studies facilitate and promote active learning, help clinical problem solving, and encourage the development of critical thinking skills.
[256] Case reports as a resource for teaching and learning - PMC — With the increased emphasis being given internationally to inter-professional education for healthcare professional students 6, case reports can provide a learning opportunity and be a useful strategy to enhance inter-professional student learning activities.
[258] Medical student experiences of Case-Based Learning (CBL) at a ... — These studies provide evidence supporting the effectiveness of active learning within CBL and are suited to international medical students. Study context and aims CBL was introduced to first-year undergraduate students studying medicine at a multicultural medical school, where students from over 100 countries attend.
[259] Full article: The effectiveness of case-based learning in health ... — Abstract. Background: Case-based learning (CBL) is a long established pedagogical method, which is defined in a number of ways depending on the discipline and type of 'case' employed. In health professional education, learning activities are commonly based on patient cases. Basic, social and clinical sciences are studied in relation to the case, are integrated with clinical presentations
[261] Teaching global health with simulations and case discussions in a ... — Background. The growing field of Global Health (GH) spans every scientific, clinical, and social science discipline, and skills developed in the study of GH are relevant to all health professions and specialties [].Furthermore, with an increasingly mobile global population [], today's US physicians require training in the global burden of disease and health disparities in order to care for a
[262] Embracing Global Health in Medical Education: — Global health comprises collaborative transnational research and action for promoting health for all. 1 Many medical schools have made strides in integrating global health ideas into their curricula. However, given time and resource constraints, global health teaching is often limited to optional or elective modules, rather than being incorporated as a key component across all years of
[264] Case Study and Selection | Doing Good Qualitative Research | Oxford ... — Abstract. This chapter presents and critically examines best practices for case study research and case selection. In reviewing prominent case study criteria that prioritize objective, analytical needs of research design ("appropriateness"), the chapter argues that overlooked considerations of feasibility (including positionality, resources, and skills) and interest play equally important
[265] Continuing to enhance the quality of case study methodology in health ... — Using multiple data collection methods is a key characteristic of all case study methodology; it enhances the credibility of the findings by allowing different facets and views of the phenomenon to be explored.23 Common methods include interviews, focus groups, observation, and document analysis.5,37 By seeking patterns within and across data sources, a thick description of the case can be generated to support a greater understanding and interpretation of the whole phenomenon.5,17,20,23 This technique is called triangulation and is used to explore cases with greater accuracy.5 Although Stake5 maintains case study is most often used in qualitative research, Yin17 supports a mix of both quantitative and qualitative methods to triangulate data.
[266] Estimating population-based coverage of reproductive, maternal, newborn ... — Policy makers and public health officials across LMICs rely on RMNCH intervention coverage estimates from routine data to timely identify coverage gaps. ... The reported proportion of the target population from the most recent census is multiplied by the projected population to determine the target population for ... A case study from Gombe
[267] Health seeking by people living with non-communicable diseases in a ... — There is a growing global burden of non-communicable diseases (NCDs), including diabetes, hypertension and cardiovascular diseases. NCDs constitute a growing public health concern in the Low and Middle Income Countries (LMICs), amplified by rapid urbanisation and urban inequality. Urbanisation and associated inequalities, have profound impacts on healthcare provision and health seeking
[269] Health seeking by people living with non-communicable diseases in a ... — To understand the dynamics of health seeking for NCD conditions including diabetes, hypertension and disability resulting from stroke in informal settlements in Freetown, Sierra Leone, we conducted a qualitative study that captured the range of experiences of people affected, formal and informal healthcare providers. Further studies are needed to explore the role of informal family caregivers in the syncretic health seeking practices for NCD conditions and to understand how health seeking decisions are negotiated between caregivers and people living with NCDs. This can be useful if health system actors in Sierra Leone, including policy makers seek to strengthen their engagement with informal healthcare providers through knowledge exchange, the delivery of basic essential healthcare services and referrals, particularly in areas where NCD healthcare services are limited, such as in informal settlements.
[270] Health system governance for injury care in low- and middle-income ... — Introduction Good health system governance is essential for reducing high mortality and morbidity after injury in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Unfortunately, the current state of governance for injury care is not known. This study evaluated governance for injury care in Ghana, Pakistan, Rwanda and South Africa, four LMICs with diverse contexts, to allow understanding of